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Medical Insights Topics

Antihistamines Glaucoma Agents

Anti-Infective/Antifungal Hormones/Adrenal/Steroids

Anti-Infective/Antiprotozoal Hormones/Pancreatic/Diabetic

Anti-Infective/Antiviral Hormones/Pituitary

Anti-Infective/Bactericidal Hormones/Reproductive

Anti-Infective/Bacteriostatic Hormones/Thyroids

Anti-inflammatory Agents Liver Agents

Arthritis and Joint Drugs Nervous System/Adrenergic & Blocking agent

Blood Coagulants and Anticoagulants Nervous System/Anticonvulsant, Sedatives,

Blood Formation and Function Nervous System/Antidepressants, Tranquilizers Tranquilizers &

Blood Pressure and Vessel Agents Nervous System/Cholinergic and Anticholinergic

Cancer Drugs Nervous System/Miscellaneous Agents

Cardiac Muscle Drugs Nervous System/Skeletal Muscle Relaxants

Cardiac/Lipid/Blood Vessel Drugs Nervous System/Stimulants

Dental Agents Pain Agents

Diuretics Respiratory Antitussives, Expectorants, &

Mucolytics

Ear, Eyes & Nose Vasoconstrictors Respiratory Smooth Muscle Relaxants

Electrolytes and Replacements Serums, Toxoids, & Vaccines

Gastrointestinal Enzyme and Acid Agents Skin & Mucous Membrane Agents

Gastrointestinal Muscle Movement Agents Vitamins & Caloric Agents

Genitourinary Muscle Relaxants

Antihistamines are used to provide relief from symptoms associated with allergies, such as hives, watery eyes, runny nose, or sneezing. They also can be used to treat anxiety, tension, nausea, vomiting, motion sickness, or sleeplessness.

. The inflammatory response is one way the body protects itself from injury. Chemicals, including histamine, are released when tissues are injured. Histamine is stored in mast cells of tissues and in basophils circulating in the blood.

Once released, histamine migrates to receptor sites in the skin, nose, eyes, and to smooth muscles of the blood vessel walls and the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. In an attempt to rid the body of injury or foreign particles, blood vessels dilate, blood flow increases, and fluid leaks out of vessels. Muscles of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts also contract and glands release secretions. This chemical response results in swelling, redness, heat, and pain at the site of injury.

Most of the time, histamine is protective, but hypersensitive reactions, known as allergies, can occur. Histamine receptor sites overactivated in the skin result in hives or rash. When allergic rhinitis and hay fever occurs, the eyes, nose, and upper respiratory tract overreact to inhalants (such as pollen or ragweed) by releasing histamine, causing itchy, watery eyes, runny nose, sneezing, or coughing. Histamine released in the gastrointestinal tract triggers stomach or intestinal smooth muscle contractions, causing vomiting, diarrhea, or cramping.

Mast Cell Stabilizers, like Crolom, coat the mast cell, preventing histamine from being released into the blood stream. ANTIHISTAMINES compete with histamine to inhibit chemical reactions by lining these receptor sites with antihistamines instead of histamine. This prevents swelling, redness, heat, and pain at the site of injury. Using ANTIHISTAMINES may prevent allergy symptoms.

Some ANTIHISTAMINES can treat sleeplessness, anxiety, tension, nausea, vomiting, or motion sickness. These ANTIHISTAMINES affect the brain, causing sedation and suppressing the vomiting center. ANTIHISTAMINES are more effective if administered before histamine is released. They are contained in many medications and are frequently used in conjunction with other medications, such as decongestants.

The Anti-Infective Agents known as Antifungal Antibiotics are used to prevent or treat fungal infections such as Athlete's Foot, Ring Worm, Thrush, Jock Itch, and Vaginitis.

Fungi, such as yeast or molds, are plant-like organisms that exist in the air, food, and water to which we are exposed daily. Some live harmlessly on the skin or in the bowel. The body's defense systems typically eliminate abnormally high concentrations of fungi invading unacceptable areas.

When normal body defense systems cannot contain the fungi, overgrowth occurs, causing Infection (often called Candida or Yeast Infections). The overgrowth most frequently occurs in (but is not limited to) dark, damp places like the vagina, groin, scalp, feet, or mouth. This causes Athlete's Foot, Ring Worm, Thrush, Jock Itch, Vaginitis, or other serious systemic organ infections.

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, such as Antifungal Antibiotics, can be administered topically or internally to eliminate fungi. Antifungal Antibiotics either alter the environment so it is unfavorable for fungi, or alter the fungi's chemical composition, causing death. The normal body defense system eliminates the infection by transporting the dead fungi as waste products.

The Anti-Infectives known as Antiprotozoal Agents are used to treat infections such as Dysentery, Malaria, or other infestations caused by lice, mites, worms, or other protozoal parasites.

Parasites are organisms that invade and obtain food from another. Their various forms include protozoa, helminths (worms), or insects and can live internally or externally off the body. The body responds by trying to destroy the parasites and preserve the normal tissue invaded.

Parasites not eliminated by the body's defense system can damage the normal body cells and tissues. This results in infestation by worms, plasmodium, mites, or lice, and causes Dysentery, Malaria, Scabies, or Pediculosis. When parasites continue to infest the body, illness symptoms are difficult to control without medication.

ANTHELMINTICS destroy Dysentery-causing worms by interfering with their digestive process or by paralyzing them. Antimalarial Agents kill Malaria-causing Plasmodium by altering the inner cell activity and preventing reproduction of the parasite. Scabicides and Pediculicides eliminate mites and lice. The medication poisons their nervous system, causing death.

The Anti-Infective Agents known as Antivirals are used to prevent or treat the common cold, cold sores, flu, chicken pox, AIDS, and other viral infections.

Viruses are very small particles dependent on other cells to replicate and live. By entering and living in normal cells, viruses alter normal functions. The body responds by trying to destroy the viruses or the cells they occupy.

Viruses that are not quickly eliminated by the body's defense system can damage normal cells. This can result in infectious disease, producing symptoms such as fever, fatigue, body aches, or generalized ill feeling. Viruses radically multiply before illness symptoms appear, and so are difficult to successfully eliminate. Viruses cause the common cold, cold sores, flu, chicken pox, or AIDS.

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, such as Antivirals, alter normal cells' inner activity so viruses cannot attack them for multiplication. Antivirals are most effective given before the virus enters the body or before symptoms occur.

5 The Anti-Infective Antibiotic Agents are used to kill infection-causing bacteria.

. Bacteria are single cell forms of life that are much smaller than human cells. Bacteria live everywhere in a variety of conditions, exist in a variety of shapes, and affect individuals in many ways. Not all bacteria are harmful, but many do create pathogenic or toxic effects. Normally, once the bacteria have entered the body, it releases toxins to invade and destroy other cells. The normal body response is to destroy and eliminate the bacteria. Factors influencing whether or not this occurs include the individual, environment, and the bacteria.

When normal body defense systems can't eliminate the bacteria, it multiplies and continues releasing toxins, damaging normal body cells. This can result in Infectious disease, producing infection symptoms such as fever, fatigue, body aches, generalized ill feeling or localized pus at an injury site.

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, specifically Antibiotics, are chemicals that can attack, destroy, or suppress bacterial growth. Some Antibiotics (such as Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Aminoglycosides, or Quinolones) function as bactericidal agents and kill bacterial cells by weakening the cell wall, allowing contents to leak out. The normal body defense system then transports the dead bacteria as waste products and the infection is eliminated.

6 Anti-Infective Antibiotic Agents are used to kill infection-causing bacteria.

Bacteria are single cell forms of life that are much smaller than human cells. Bacteria live everywhere in a variety of conditions, exist in a variety of shapes, and affect individuals in many ways. Not all bacteria are harmful, but many do create pathogenic or toxic effects. Normally, once the bacteria have entered the body, it releases toxins to invade and destroy other cells. The normal body response is to destroy and eliminate the bacteria. Factors influencing whether or not this occurs include the individual, environment, and the bacteria.

When normal body defense systems can not eliminate bacteria, it multiplies and continues releasing toxins, damaging normal body cells. This can result in infectious disease, producing infection symptoms such as fever, fatigue, body aches, generalized ill feeling or localized pus at an injury site.

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, specifically Antibiotics, can attack, destroy, or suppress bacterial growth. Some Antibiotics (such as Macrolides, Tetracyclines, or Sulfonamides) function as bacteriostatic agents and alter chemical activity inside the cell resulting in bacterial cell death. The normal body defense system then transports the dead bacteria as waste products and infection is eliminated.

Anti-Inflammatory Agents, either Steroids or Nonsteroidal Agents, are applied directly to an inflamed area to decrease heat, swelling, redness, pain, or other symptoms.

. The skin is the largest organ of the body and its layers act as a barrier against foreign substances. Mucous membranes line body cavities that open to the exterior and serve a similar protective function in repelling foreign substances. The eyes, ears, nose, respiratory, digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts are lined with this protective mucous membrane. Combined, the skin and mucous membranes act as the first line of defense against foreign substances.

With a break in the protective covering of the skin or mucous membranes, foreign substances can enter the body. The second line of defense against foreign substances is the inflammatory process. When tissues are injured, chemicals are released by white blood cells,

causing such reactions as dilatation of blood vessels, an increase in blood supply, and fluid leaks from vessels. This response is an attempt to rid the area of foreign substances and can result in swelling, redness, heat, and pain. After the foreign substances have been eliminated, the body releases hormones (called corticosteroids) to reduce these symptoms and allow the area to heal.

If the body's normal release of corticosteroids is not sufficient to suppress the inflammatory symptoms, the symptoms continue or worsen. Often this inflammation is caused by an allergic reaction to the foreign substances. Allergies can affect skin and mucous membrane linings and result in runny nose, sneezing, itchy eyes, itchy ears, or skin rashes. Dermatitis is noninfectious inflammation of the skin in response to an irritant or foreign substance represented by rashes or hives. Likewise, Ulcerative Colitis is an inflammatory response of the intestine, and Hemorrhoids are an inflammatory response of the veins in the rectum or anus.

Adrenocorticoids, often called steroids, are similar to the normal body corticosteroids and can be used to reduce inflammation. Adrenocorticoids inhibit the white blood cells and their inflammatory chemical response so blood vessels return to normal and healing begins. Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Agents, such as Voltaren or Acular, also can be effective in reducing symptoms of inflammation by inhibiting the chemical reactions produced by white blood cells at the site. They have less side effects than steroid Anti-inflammatory Agents. Anti-inflammatory Agents for the skin, mucous membranes, ears, eyes, or nose are applied directly to the area for localized reduction of swelling, heat, redness, or pain.

Joint Drugs are used to treat symptoms associated with joint pain or swelling resulting from Rheumatoid Arthritis, Gout, or other inflammatory diseases.

A joint is the area between two or more bones that allows body movement. Synovial joints, like the knee, shoulder, or elbow, are free-moving joints. The bones meeting to form these joints have articular cartilage covering their ends and are separated by lubricating synovial fluid produced by the synovial membrane.

Occasionally, the synovial membrane becomes inflamed, resulting in swelling and increased synovial fluid accumulation. Rheumatoid Arthritis occurs when immune complexes lodge in the synovial fluid, causing inflammation that results in heat, redness, swelling, and pain of joints. Gout occurs when uric acid accumulates due to lack of kidney excretion and is deposited as crystals in the synovial fluid. This results in joint inflammation and, if left untreated, leads to cartilage and bone destruction.

Uricosuric Agents, Gold Compounds, or Heavy Metal Antagonists are used to treat arthritic joint inflammation. These medications prevent immune complexes or uric acid from accumulating in the synovial fluid by increasing their rate of excretion through the kidney resulting in reduced incidence of swelling, redness, heat, or pain.

Blood Coagulants are used to treat excessive bleeding, called hemorrhage. To prevent instances where blood clots have the potential to contribute to heart attack or stroke, Anticoagulants and Hemorrheologic Agents are used.

Blood coagulation is a protective mechanism consisting of a specific sequence of chemical reactions that produce clots to stop bleeding. When an injury occurs, blood vessels constrict to decrease the amount of flow to the area. Platelets come to the area and stick together to seal off the bleeding site. Eventually, chemicals react in the blood to form clots that plug up the damaged vessels. Typically, there is a delicate balance in the body between clot formation and dissolution.

Abnormal development of clots (called thrombi) can obstruct blood flow in vessels and damage tissues or organs. If the clot inhibits blood flow, or if chemicals responsible for the dissolution of clots are deficient, tissues are left without oxygen and quickly die. These clots can cause Heart Attacks, Strokes, and other diseases.

Anticoagulants and Hemorrheologic Agents interfere with the chemical reactions needed for blood thickening and clot development. These medications allow continuous blood circulation, preventing occlusion and obstruction of blood flow by clots. By using Anticoagulants and Hemorrheologic Agents, the body's natural balance between clot formation and dissolution is disrupted.

Occasionally, a clot is not developed and a large amount of blood loss, called hemorrhage, occurs and results in oxygen depletion throughout the tissues. The blood that does not clot appropriately does not escape faster than blood that clots, but it leaks for a longer time without stopping. Chemical reactions for blood clotting may only partially occur and typically, the clot is not effectively formed.

Hemostatic Agents, mainly Amicar, prevent clots from dissolving or limit agents that can dissolve them, resulting in a stable clot that halts bleeding.

Blood Formation and Function Drugs help with the formation of blood or replace blood components, such as iron, that are lacking. They are used in the treatment of Anemia.

Blood is comprised of fluid (called plasma), red blood cells, and other formed elements. Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow to replace those that are destroyed or die. Hemoglobin in red blood cells contains iron, which binds to the oxygen that is transported to tissues by the red blood cells. The hormone erythropoietin influences the rate of production of the red blood cells, while the amount of oxygen in the blood stream influences erythropoietin and blood cell production.

Anemia occurs when the amount of iron-rich red blood cells carrying oxygen to tissues is inadequate. Anemia may be a result of hemorrhage, illness, or nutritional deficiencies.

Hematopoietic Agents treat anemia by stimulating production of red blood cells. Iron Preparations allow more oxygen to be transported to tissues by binding to hemoglobin present in red blood cells. To increase absorption of Iron Preparations, they can be combined with other agents, like Vitamin C. To counteract side effects such as constipation, Iron Preparations can be combined with stool softeners.

Blood Pressure and Vessel Agents are used to treat high blood pressure, called Hypertension. They can be further grouped into Hypotensive Agents or Vasodilating Agents acting directly on the blood vessel or altering the amount of blood flowing through the vessel.

Boldface words Pumped by the heart, blood flows through vessels, transporting oxygen and nutrients to various cells and organs. Blood pressure is produced by the amount of blood pumped out of the heart and the resistance met in the blood vessels. The body maintains blood pressure by changing the vessel diameter or the amount of blood pumped out of the heart.

The Sympathetic Nervous System secretes chemicals, mainly norepinephrine, that constrict blood vessels and increase the heart rate and pumping force, causing a quick elevation of blood pressure. When this occurs, a balancing mechanism is activated to inhibit norepinephrine, thus stabilizing blood pressure.

When this complex nervous system control fails, blood vessels remain constricted (called vasoconstriction) and blood flow to vital organs is decreased. This vasoconstriction maintains increased blood pressure, called Hypertension.

Hypotensives can improve blood flow, reduce blood pressure, and prevent damage to the blood vessels, kidneys, brain, or other organs. Central Nervous System Acting Drugs, Sympatholytic Drugs, and Beta-Blockers alter the release of chemical (norepinephrine) or limit responses of the heart or blood vessels to the chemicals. By minimizing norepinephrine, blood vessels relax and blood pressure decreases.

The kidneys regulate blood pressure by increasing or decreasing blood volume in the body. They respond to chemical signals by conserving or excreting water to change this blood volume. If blood volume is low, chemicals are released by the kidneys and create reactions that produce powerful vasoconstriction and water retention. This increases blood vessel resistance and blood volume.

The kidneys have a balancing system in place. If it malfunctions, blood volume and blood vessel resistance increases. The end result is increased blood pressure, called Hypertension.

Hypotensives and Vasodilators can improve blood flow, reduce blood pressure, and prevent damage to the blood vessels, kidneys, or brain. ACE (Angiotension Converting Enzyme) Inhibitors prevent the development of angiotensin II chemicals that constrict blood vessels. By restricting these chemicals, blood vessels can relax, blood can flow more freely, and blood pressure decreases. Diuretics

also can be used in combination with Hypotensives and Vasodilators to decrease blood pressure by excreting water through the kidneys.

To regulate blood pressure, the body naturally balances the amount of contraction and relaxation of blood vessels. When Calcium enters muscle cells through the calcium channels, muscles contract and the diameter of blood vessels decreases. The body stops the calcium movement to allow vessel dilatation.

If the natural balancing of blood vessel diameter fails, vasoconstriction occurs, causing a smaller diameter for blood to flow through. This vasoconstriction results in increased blood pressure, called Hypertension.

Hypotensives and Vasodilators can treat Hypertension. Nitrates, Calcium Channel Blockers, and Vasodilators act directly on smooth muscle cells of blood vessels to increase their diameter or dilate them. Specifically, Calcium Channel Blockers and Vasodilators allow blood vessel dilatation by altering calcium movement in and out of muscle cells. Hypotensives and Vasodilators relax the muscle cells, resulting in blood vessel dilatation followed by decreased blood pressure. are drug names or classifications. Return to the Medical Insights Topics list by clicking the icon in the upper left corner.

Antineoplastic Agents, frequently referred to as Chemotherapy, are used to treat Cancer by destroying the cancer cells.

The cells in the body systematically grow, mature, and die. The body normally removes dead or unhealthy cells and replaces them with new healthy cells.

Sometimes cells do not behave in an organized manner but replicate very rapidly. These mutant cells grow excessively and clump together to form a tumor. If the abnormal cells spread to other areas in the body, they are referred to as cancerous or malignant cells, and cannot usually perform normal function. If left untreated, these cells get out of control and take over normal cells and body functioning.

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS, known as chemotherapy, are used to prevent cell growth or replication and destroy cancer cells. These agents interfere with the metabolism or the structure of the cell, preventing reproduction and causing cell death. Certain hormones are used to oppose hormonally induced cell growth to halt and kill cancer cells. Due to different mechanisms of action, numerous drugs may be given at one time for treatment of cancer.n in the upper left corner.

Cardiac Muscle Drugs are used to strengthen and regulate the heart's pumping action to prevent or treat Angina, Myocardial Infarction, Heart Beat Irregularities, or Heart Failure.

This amazing pump keeps blood and life-giving nutrients circulating non-stop--beat after beat, day after day, year after year. One part of the heart pumps blood to the lungs where it takes on oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The other takes this refreshed blood and distributes it throughout the body, invigorating muscles and bones, as well as the body's organs -- like the brain, kidneys, liver, and the heart.

One of the most important organs nurtured by this oxygenated blood is the heart itself. The aorta serves as the main outbound blood vessel for carrying this oxygenated blood. Branching from the aorta, the coronary arteries spread out over the surface of the heart and carry the refreshed blood to this tireless muscle.

When coronary arteries, or any of the arteries branching from them, become partially or completely blocked, there is an interruption of the blood flow to the heart muscle. This can cause pain, called Angina, that is typically felt as a pressure, or squeezing, in the chest and may radiate down the left arm. If the blockage is severe enough, the portion of cardiac muscle that is oxygen-deprived will die. This is known as a Myocardial Infarction, or heart attack."

Many medications may be used to prevent Angina or Myocardial Infarction. Calcium Channel Blockers inhibit the flow of calcium in the walls of the coronary arteries, allowing them to relax and dilate. This allows more blood to be delivered to the heart muscle. Beta Blockers reduce the Autonomic Nervous System release of chemicals (called catecholamines), decreasing the heart rate and force of contraction. This decreases the heart's need for oxygen.

There are four chambers in the heart, connected by one-way valves that usher the blood in and out of this busy transit station. Blood returning from its journey around the body is oxygen-depleted and enters the right atrium where it is pumped into the right ventricle. The stronger right ventricle ejects the blood toward the lungs to become revived. Once it has been refreshed with oxygen in the lungs, the blood enters the left atrium, then the left ventricle in the same fashion. This left ventricle acts as the workhorse of the heart as it propels the oxygen-rich blood out of the heart to all parts of the body.

If the muscle of the heart is damaged enough to decrease its pumping ability (or contractility), a traffic jam occurs, backing up the normal flow of blood. This is known as Heart Failure. When the right side of the heart doesn't contract properly, excess fluid accumulation (called peripheral edema) can result in swelling of the lower legs. When the left side of the heart fails to keep up with the pumping demands, blood backs up and the lungs become congested.

Medication is frequently used to restore the heart's proper functions. Cardiac Glycosides, such as Digoxin, decrease the heart rate, allowing more time for the ventricles to fill up with blood, particularly blood that has been backed up in the lungs or lower legs. Cardiac Glycosides also allow the heart to contract more strongly and force more blood to circulate. ACE Inhibitors prevent the development of angiotensin II chemicals that constrict vessels. By restricting these chemicals, the vessels relax, blood can flow more freely, and less blood becomes backed up in the system. ACE Inhibitors also strengthen the heart muscle, forcing blood to circulate throughout the rest of the body.

The electrical conduction system keeps all this movement of blood on schedule by affecting the rate and quality of the heart beat. At the core of the rhythm section is a wiring system, complete with its own timer called the sinoatrial node. Known as the pacemaker of the heart, it originates in the right atrium. This node causes both atria to contract, pushing their blood down into each ventricle. That same impulse triggers another node (called the atrioventricular node) that is located between the atria and the ventricles. It starts a new wave of impulses to travel down bundle branches and out into the Purkinje fibers in the ventricles, forcing them to contract and eject blood.

Dysrhythmias are abnormal conductions that result from a diseased or damaged heart. Atrial Fibrillation and Atrial Flutter are disruptions of atrial conductions that cause rapid, ineffective atrial pumping.

Ventricular dysrhythmias are more dangerous. Ventricular Tachycardia is the rapid, independent, ineffective beating of the ventricles. This can deteriorate into the chaotic and weak conduction of Ventricular Fibrillation where the heart has no effective pumping. Death results if Ventricular Fibrillation is not corrected.

Heart Blocks are the inhibition of impulses that are normally conducted from the atria to the ventricles. They occur in different degrees of severity. Simple blocks (first degree blocks) delay each impulse from the atria to the ventricles. Severe blocks (third degree blocks) completely prevent the atrial impulses from getting through to the ventricles.

Many different drugs are used to prevent dysrhythmias and typically work to either affect the triggering ability or affect the flow of the electrical impulse for regular heart beat and rhythm. Calcium Channel Blockers and Lidocaine decrease the electrical triggering by blocking calcium activity and decreasing the cell's responsiveness or excitability. On the other hand, Beta Blockers and Cardiac Glycosides decrease the flow of the electrical impulse so the muscle fibers are at rest for a longer time. This allows the heart to beat regularly and more strongly. In some instances, when both the triggering ability and flow of the electrical impulses need to be affected, Procainamides are used to prevent dysrhythmias.

Cardiac Lipid and Blood Vessel Drugs prevent fatty substances (plaques) from clogging the blood vessels to treat Atherosclerosis.

, blood flows through the large arterial blood vessels to transport oxygen and nutrients to various organs. These arterial blood vessels have very thick walls and must expand and recoil quickly to move this oxygenated blood to the vital organs.

After delivering the oxygen and nutrients to the organs, through the arteries, the blood returns to the heart in the venous blood vessels. Veins have thinner walls and do not expand and recoil as rapidly as arteries. They have less diameter to transport the unoxygenated blood through the body to the heart for reoxygenation.

Blood vessels can become irregularly clogged or narrowed by fatty substances, such as cholesterol or triglycerides, that attach to the inner walls. These fatty substances can accumulate in the vessel walls and harden. The hardened substances (called plaques) decrease the diameter of the vessel. When the inner layers of the blood vessels become coated with plaques, supporting cells and muscle cells of the vessel wall die and are replaced by hardened scar tissue. This condition of the blood vessels is known as Atherosclerosis. The scar tissue restricts the blood flow through the affected vessels. Because of the restricted amount of oxygenated blood and nutrients being delivered, many organs, such as the brain, heart, and kidneys can be affected. This can result in coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, renal failure, stroke, high blood pressure, peripheral vascular disease, and other diseases.

Life style modifications, dietary restrictions, and medications may be used to prevent new fatty deposits and halt the progression of Atherosclerosis. These medications are classified as Antilipemic Agents, reducing the levels of fat in the blood by acting on the enzymes

in the liver or acting on the bile salts of the intestine. This, in turn, alters the formation of cholesterol within the liver and fatty substances are not released into the bloodstream or deposited in vessel walls. Additionally, by preventing the absorption of bile salts that carry large amounts of cholesterol in the intestine, the fatty substances are excreted and not allowed to connect to the blood vessel walls. Simply put, Antilipemic Agents prevent fatty substances from attaching to the blood vessel walls and allow blood to flow freely.cking the icon in the upper left corner.

Dental Agents are used to prevent or treat symptoms of swelling, heat, redness, or tenderness in the mouth (commonly referred to as Gingivitis).

. Gingiva, more commonly referred to as gums, are fibrous tissues covered by pink mucous membranes in the mouth. Their purpose is to cover the roots of the teeth and to act as a protective barrier against foreign substances, such as bacteria, that are normally found in the mouth.

If an injury or opening occurs in the gingiva, inflammation begins. When the tissues are injured, chemicals are released, causing blood vessel dilatation, increased blood supply, and leaking of fluid out of the vessels. This response is an attempt to rid the area of foreign substances and results in swelling, redness, heat, and pain. The body normally reacts by releasing hormones, called corticosteroids, to limit these symptoms and to allow the area to heal.

Gingivitis is an inflammation of the gingiva around the teeth commonly caused by plaque. Plaque is a combination of food, bacteria, and saliva forming at the base of the teeth due to improper or inadequate dental hygiene. The body reacts to plaque as a foreign substance and triggers an inflammatory response producing swelling, redness, heat, and pain of the gingiva.

Medications can be used to prevent or treat Gingivitis. Adrenocorticoids, such as Orabase or Kenalog, similar to the normal body corticosteroids, can reduce inflammation. Adrenocorticoids inhibit the inflammatory chemical response so that the blood vessels return to normal and do not leak fluid. The Adrenocorticoids reduce swelling, heat, redness, or pain, but do not treat the cause of Gingivitis. With a break in the protective covering, bacteria enter into the gingival tissues and can act as foreign substances causing inflammation and eventually infection. Peridex or Periogard kill and eliminate bacteria from the mouth to prevent Gingivitis.

Diuretics are prescribed to treat conditions that cause swelling, also called edema, because they can increase urine output.

The kidneys are bean shaped organs smaller than the size of a person's fist. They regulate body water and substances needed to maintain normal composition of the body. They filter out water, substances, and waste from the blood, regulate blood pressure, maintain blood circulation, and stimulate production of red blood cells.

Kidneys contain millions of nephrons that act as the functional unit of the organ and contain a filtration component (glomerulus) and a tubular component (Proximal, Loop of Henle, Distal, & Collecting tubules) that reabsorbs water and other substances and transforms filtered fluid into urine.

Fluid retention, called Edema, can result from organ disease or failure, or hormones. This may result in high blood pressure, swelling (especially of the legs and feet), and accumulation of substances and waste products.

Drugs prescribed to increase urine output are called Diuretics. Some Diuretics prevent the reabsorption of sodium, chloride, and potassium in the tubular component of the nephron and result in substances and water excreted in urine. If high levels of potassium are being lost through the urine, Potassium-Sparing Diuretics may be used for water and substance excretion but reserve the potassium to maintain normal body composition of substances.list by clicking the icon in the upper left corner.

Ears, Eyes and Nose Vasoconstrictors reduce symptoms such as swelling, heat, redness, and pain due to Allergies or Infections of the ears, eyes and nose.

Mucous membranes line the eyes, ears, nose, and throat. They act as the first line of defense by repelling foreign substances.

When mucous membranes become irritated or inflamed by allergies or infections (like the common cold), chemicals are released in the body. In an attempt to rid the membranes of the foreign substances, blood vessels dilate, blood supply increases, and vessels leak fluid. This can result in swelling, redness, heat, pain, itching or watering of the affected area.

Ears, Eyes, and Nose Vasoconstrictors are applied topically for a direct effect on the inflamed area. They reduce symptoms such as swelling, heat, redness, or pain by constricting the mucous membrane blood vessels. This prevents fluid leaks from the vessels and decreases the chemical inflammatory response.

Acidifying or Alkalinizing Agents are used when fluid and electrolyte (chemical) imbalances occur due to vomiting, diarrhea, excessive sweating or urination, fast breathing, kidney or other diseases, or as a side effect of specific medications.

Click on an underlined word to display its definition from The Random House Health and Medicine Water makes up a large amount of the normal body weight. Intracellular (inside cells) and extracellular (outside of cells) compartments both contain water and specified dissolved particles, called electrolytes. Electrolytes, especially hydrogen, are responsible for the acidity and alkalinity of the body. Typically, intracellular fluids contain potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg++), and phosphate (PO4--) electrolytes. The extracellular fluid contains sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca++), chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate(HCO3-) electrolytes. The body has many mechanisms (the kidneys, for one) to keep electrolytes and water in a delicate balance to maintain health.

Kidney and other diseases, or medications, such as diuretics, can cause electrolyte or water changes between compartments. Fluids and electrolytes also can be lost from the intestine due to vomiting or diarrhea, from the skin due to excessive sweating, from the kidneys due to excessive urination, or from the respiratory tract due to fast breathing. This is known as Fluid or Electrolyte Imbalance. Occasionally, the body retains calcium (Ca++) which can form Kidney Stones resulting in pain, inflammation, or obstruction.

Acidifying Agents or Alkalinizing Agents can be given to restore electrolyte imbalances. Alkalinizing Agents, such as Citrolith or Urocit-

K, convert to bicarbonate to restore an electrolyte balance from acidic to neutral. Acidifying Agents, such as K-Phos, make the environment more acidic to maintain electrolyte balances in the blood and kidneys. Other Replacement Preparations, such as Calcium or Potassium Supplements, are given to replace specific electrolytes lost. Electrolyte Solution is used for general electrolytes and fluid replacement. Other medications, such as Thiola, prevent calcium accumulation and kidney stone formation.Dictionary. Boldface words are drug names or classifications. Return to the Medical Insights Topics list by clicking the icon in the upper left corner.

Gastrointestinal Enzyme and Acid Agents help treat conditions such as Gallstones, Pancreatits, and Cystic Fibrosis. The Acid Agents are used in the treatment of Indigestion, Heart Burn, Ulcers, and other stomach conditions.

The Gastrointestinal tract, also known as the digestive tract, is a long hollow tube where food passes to be broken into nutrients for absorption and use by the body. The stomach is a temporary storage site for food. Gastrin, a stomach hormone, triggers the release of enzymes (pepsinogen), gastric juices (hydrochloric acid), and mucus for the mucosal barrier that protects the lining. The enzymes and gastric juices break down food in the stomach, then move it to the intestine for further breakdown, absorption, or elimination. The pancreas is a gland that produces and secretes enzymes into the intestine for food breakdown. The liver is the largest organ in the body and has a digestive function of producing bile. Bile, stored in the gallbladder, is secreted into the intestine for digestive assistance.

The gastrointestinal tract lining may become irritated or inflamed due to increased acid production or inability of the mucosal lining to resist destruction, causing ulcers. Crohn´s Disease and Ulcerative Colitis are systemic diseases often characterized by inflamed intestines.

Ulcers typically cause discomfort and can be treated with medications altering the acid or protecting the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. Antacids combine with the acidic juices and neutralize them to prevent mucosal lining erosion. Antiulcer Agents, such as Cimetidine or Ranitidine, block the secretion of acid to prevent irritation and ulcers of the gastrointestinal tract. Some medications, such as Carafate, react with gastric acid to form a protective paste that coats the irritated gastrointestinal area, protecting it from acid. Anti-inflammatory Agents, such as Asacol, inhibit chemicals responsible for inflammation of the intestine.

Occasionally, not enough enzymes are available in the gastrointestinal tract for digestion and absorption of food. Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract (mainly the pancreas) include Pancreatitis and Cystic Fibrosis. The disease prevents normal digestion by blocking digestive enzyme release. Bile, stored in the gallbladder, may harden, forming gallstones that can block bile secretion completely, resulting in jaundice and malabsorption.

Digestants, such as Creon or Pancrease, are pancreatic enzyme replacements used to reestablish normal digestion in gastrointestinal disorders. They are needed for carbohydrate, protein, and fat digestion and absorption. Cholelitholytic Agents, such as Actigall, dissolve gallstones to prevent bile blockage and allow normal digestion.urn to the Medical Insights Topics list by clicking the icon in the upper left corner.

Gastrointestinal Muscle Movement Agents alter the natural muscle movements and are used to treat diarrhea, constipation, or vomiting.

The Gastrointestinal tract, also known as the digestive tract, is a long hollow tube where food passes to be broken down into nutrients for absorption and use by the body. Food is propelled down this tract by smooth muscle contractions, called peristalsis, that are controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Juices and enzymes are secreted to break down the food into smaller particles for use. Food not used is easily and routinely eliminated from the body as waste in the form of feces.

With a disruption of the normal muscle contractions of the stomach or intestines, diarrhea or constipation occurs. Constipation occurs when peristalsis is slowed and feces become hard, infrequent, and difficult to pass. Diarrhea occurs with excessive peristalsis, increasing the fluidity and frequency of feces passing. Sometimes diarrhea is a protective mechanism to rid it of harmful foreign substances.

Laxatives prevent or treat constipation by increasing peristalsis, or by increasing bulk or fluid content of the feces. This makes it softer and easier to pass through the intestine. In contrast, Antidiarrheal Agents, such as Opium, relieve diarrhea by blocking transmission of nerve signals to the muscles, slowing movement (peristalsis). Other agents, like Capacitate or Pepto-Bismol, either bind with diarrhea to help bacteria pass or reabsorb fluid into the intestine to prevent diarrhea.

Vomiting is a protective reflexive action to rid the stomach of harmful substances. Nausea, an unpleasant sensation, typically occurs before vomiting and is a warning signal. If vomiting is not controlled, large amounts of fluids and chemicals may be lost from the body, causing dehydration or electrolyte imbalance. Vomiting may occur due to stomach lining irritation and brain vomiting center stimulation. During vomiting, the brain triggers stomach muscles to contract so that particles are expelled.

Emetics, such as Ipecac, irritate the stomach lining, stimulate the brain's vomiting center, and induce vomiting to treat drug overdose or poison ingestion. Ant emetics inhibit the pathway between the stomach and the brain's vomiting center to relieve nausea and vomiting.

Genitourinary Muscle Relaxants are used to relax the bladder when bladder spasms, pain, urgency, frequency, or incontinence are a problem. The urinary system produces urine by filtering water and waste products from the blood. Urine is stored in the bladder, a smooth muscular triangular-shaped structure. The sphincter muscle typically allows the bladder to expand and fill until nerves are stimulated that allow conscious relaxation so urine can flow out through the urethra.

Infection or other factors can cause bladder and sphincter muscles to malfunction, resulting in lack of urinary control. Urinary Incontinence

is involuntary passage of urine with the loss of control of bladder storage. Urgency (the sudden need to urinate), can be caused by increased sensitivity of the bladder muscle. Frequency is caused by over stimulation of nerves that produce the urge to void. Bladder Spasms, characterized by quivering and pain, are caused by abnormal tension of muscles. Urinary retention (infrequent urination) is often due to surgery or infection.

Genitourinary Smooth Muscle Relaxants, like Discrepant or Uri spas, can relax the bladder and sphincter smooth muscles to prevent spasms, pain, urgency, and frequency. They interrupt the nerve impulses (from the brain) that are signaling the bladder muscle to contract.

The urinary system produces urine by filtering water and waste products from the blood. Urine is stored in the bladder, a smooth muscular triangular-shaped structure. The sphincter muscle typically allows the bladder to expand and fill until nerves are stimulated that allow conscious relaxation so urine can flow out through the urethra.

Infection or other factors can cause bladder and sphincter muscles to malfunction, resulting in lack of urinary control. Urinary Incontinence

Glaucoma Agents act in various ways to decrease the pressure in the eye and are used to treat Glaucoma.

Light images enter the eye through the cornea, then pass through the pupil (controlled by the iris muscle) to the lens. The lens transmits a focused image to the retina. The optic nerve receives signals from the retina and forwards them to the brain for interpretation. Aqueous and vitreous humor fluids protect and nourish the eye and form its shape. Aqueous humor, a clear fluid produced with assistance of carbonic anhydrate enzyme and secreted by the ciliary’s body, fills the space between the cornea and lens. It flows through a passageway between the lens and iris, then through the pupil where it is reabsorbed in the iris angle region. Typically the production of aqueous humor and the outflow are equal to maintain a constant normal pressure.

If more aqueous humor fluid is secreted than reabsorbed, or if fluid is not allowed to flow out to be reabsorbed, pressure within the eye builds up and may result in loss of vision. This condition is known as Glaucoma. With high pressure in the eye, the blood vessels supplying the optic nerve become compressed causing blurred vision, headache, eye pain, and eventually loss of vision. Glaucoma can be caused by a congenital deformity, injury or hemorrhage in the eye, infection, or a tumor that obstructs the flow or fluid.

Meiotic, Mediates, Carbonic Anhydrate Inhibitors, or Beta Blockers can decrease the intraocular pressure to treat Glaucoma and prevent deterioration of vision. Meiotic contract eye muscles which, in turn, constrict the pupils. This results in blood vessel dilatation and increased fluid out flow. Mediates relax eye muscles causing pupillary dilatation so more aqueous humor can flow out of the eye. Mediates may also diminish the formation of aqueous humor to decrease eye pressure. Carbonic Anhydrate Inhibitors diminish carbonic anhydrate enzyme responsible for production of aqueous humor in the ciliary’s body resulting in less fluid production and diminished eye pressure. Topical Beta Blockers, such as Timoptic, inhibit cells that secrete aqueous humor to decrease pressure. These medications may also be used to alter pupillary size before eye examinations

Hormones - Adrenal Agents are frequently referred to as Corticosteroids. Some of these drugs (glucocotricoids) reduce inflammation symptoms of swelling, heat, redness, or pain. Others (mineralocorticoids) treat Addison's Disease by replacing insufficient chemicals. he adrenal glands are located just above each kidney. They produce and store mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid hormones. The mineralocorticoids, like Aldosterone, maintain water and electrolyte balance. The glucocorticoids, like cortisol, maintain blood sugar and decrease inflammation. The production and release of these hormones are controlled by a natural feedback mechanism.

When the natural control mechanism for adrenal corticosteroid hormones fails, disease occurs. Addison´s Disease occurs when the adrenal glands do not secrete enough mineralocorticoids. Insufficient amounts of glucocorticoid can lead to uncontrolled inflammation.

Synthetic medications can be given to replace natural adrenal corticosteroid hormones. Florinef influences sodium and water balance by mimicking natural mineralocorticoid. It replaces aldosterone and is used in the treatment of Addison´s Disease. Synthetic Corticosteroids resemble glucocorticoids and can reduce the amount of swelling, heat, and redness by blocking the chemicals responsible for inflammation.

24Hormones - Diabetic Agents are used to treat Diabetes Mellitus by replacing either Insulin or Glucose (sugar) for energy.

The pancreas is a gland in the abdomen that secretes digestive fluids and produces the hormones of insulin and glucagon. Glucagon and insulin counteract each other to regulate blood sugar in the body. Glucagon naturally increases blood sugar, known as glucose, in the blood while Insulin transports glucose from the blood into the cells to be used as energy.

Diabetes Mellitus is an abnormal break down of nutrients due to decreased insulin production by the pancreas or decreased effectiveness of the insulin produced by the pancreas. It occurs when insufficient levels of effective insulin fail to transform glucose into energy. Instead, glucose (or sugar) in the blood is excreted in urine causing symptoms of frequent urination, thirst, increased appetite, fatigue, and weight loss.

Insulin and Sulfonylurea Agents, such as Glyburide or Orinase, treat Diabetes Mellitus by mimicking normal body insulin or stimulating inactive insulin secretion by the pancreas. This allows normal uptake and use of glucose for energy. Glucagon imitates normal hormonal glucagon secretions to quickly increase levels of glucose in the blood. Glucagon and Insulin or Sulfonylurea Agents counteract each other like natural hormonal glucagon and insulin do to keep a blood sugar balance.

Hormones - Pituitary Agents are used for people with Diabetes Insipidus, Pituitary Dwarfism, or Pituitary Tumors. They replace natural pituitary hormones needed for growth and body water conservation.

The pituitary gland, located near the hypothalamus, stores and secretes numerous hormones. Pituitary hormones regulate growth, water balance, and stimulates secretion of hormones by other endocrine glands. Growth Hormones are produced during childhood for growth of bones, muscles, and organs. Antidiuretic hormones (ADH) are secreted to conserve water in the kidneys by preventing excretion. Pituitary hormone levels are regulated by the body's natural feedback system.

Pituitary tumors and other diseases may cause hyposecretion of growth hormone causing Pituitary Dwarfism or hyposecretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) resulting in excessive urine excretion called diabetes insipidus.

Nutropin and Protropin function like natural growth hormone by stimulating growth in the child. This results in an increased number of different cells in the body. Desmopressin is a medication that mimics natural antidiuretic hormone (ADH) to conserve water in the kidneys by increasing reabsorption of water from the collecting tubules of the kidneys.

Hormones - Reproductive Agents can replace or balance the body's natural hormones and are used in the treatment of Delayed Puberty, Infertility, Menstrual Irregularities, or Pregnancy Prevention.

The female ovaries in the pelvic cavity and the male testes in the scrotum typically produce sex hormones at puberty and after, resulting in secondary sexual characteristic development and reproductive abilities. Female sexual characteristics include breast development, pubic and axillary hair growth, and widening of the pelvis. Female Estrogen and Progesterone act together to cause cyclic changes of the uterine lining in menstrual periods and preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. Menopause occurs in females due to decreased production of estrogen and progesterone. Male sexual characteristics include deepening voice, genital enlargement, and pubic and axillary hair growth. Testosterone and other Androgens (male hormones), produce an anabolic effect resulting in matured muscles and bones.

Delayed puberty or infertility can occur due to inadequate production and release of estrogen, progesterone, or testosterone sex hormones. Certain cancerous tumors, especially of the testes, ovaries, or breasts, may occur in response to hypersecretion of sex hormones. Menstrual Irregularities can occur due to imbalance of estrogen or progesterone hormone secretion causing irregular or absent menstrual cycles, or excessive menstrual bleeding.

Synthetic hormones, such as Oral Contraceptives, Androgens, Gonadotropins, Estrogens, or Progestins can be given to replace inadequate natural hormone production. This promotes the development and functioning of sexual characteristics to regulate the menstrual cycle, and prevent pregnancy. Occasionally, Synthetic hormones are given to counteract hormone sensitive tumor growth

27Hormones - Thyroid Agents can either replace natural thyroid hormone, which is necessary in the treatment of Cretinism or Myxedema, or can inhibit production of thyroid hormone to treat symptoms associated with Graves' Disease. The thyroid gland in the neck has two large lateral lobes that store and secrete thyroid-secreting hormones. These thyroid-secreting hormones regulate general cell growth and development and produce heat and energy. Iodine combined with chemicals forms thyroid-secreting hormones that are released into the blood stream to match the body's need for them.

The thyroid may become underactive or overactive, causing general health problems. Hyperthyroidism, or Graves' Disease, is an overactive secretion of thyroid hormone. Graves' Disease may be identified by a goiter (lump), bulging eyes, weight loss, or nervousness. Cretinism and Myxedema are results of hypothyroidism and are characterized by dry skin and hair, fatigue, or generalized swelling.

Antithyroid Drugs, such as Propylthiouracil, are used to decrease symptoms associated with Graves´ Disease. They inhibit the production or secretion of thyroid hormones by inhibiting iodine's effectiveness. Synthetic Thyroid Replacements, such as Synthroid or Thyroid, are used as synthetic substitutes for natural thyroid hormone in treating Cretinism and Myxedema.

28(Ammonia Detoxicant) Liver Agents are used to treat Liver Failure symptoms by eliminating poisonous ammonia in the body.

The liver is the largest gland in the body. It aids digestion by breaking down nutrients, specifically amino acids, resulting in ammonia as a waste product. Ammonia is released into the blood by the liver, where it is converted to urea and excreted by the intestine or kidney. The liver is also responsible for many other body functions such as production of blood proteins or detoxifying drugs and chemicals.

Hepatic Encephalopathy and Liver Failure are the result of a diseased or injured liver. The malfunctioning liver allows ammonia to accumulate at levels that can poison the liver, blood, and eventually the brain, causing confusion, coma, or death.

Ammonia Detoxicants, such as Lactulose, are used to treat liver disease. They alter the environment of the bowel, binding with the high levels of ammonia in the intestine. This causes diarrhea that quickly excretes the ammonia and prevents reabsorption by the blood. Ammonia Detoxicants also promote the transference of ammonia from the blood to the intestine for excretion.

Nervous System Adrenergic (Sympathomimetic) Agents are used to treat breathing disorders such as Asthma, Emphysema, or Chronic Bronchitis. Nervous System Adrenergic Blocking (Sympatholytic) Agents are used to treat symptoms of migraine headachesNeurons communicate with other cells throughout the body by releasing chemicals, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, into the synapse exciting receptors. Another neuron responds to the chemicals in the synaptic junction by sending electrical impulses to various organs. Stimulation from epinephrine and norepinephrine results in cerebral vessel dilatation, increased heart rate and strength, peripheral blood vessel constriction, airway relaxation, decreased intestinal activity, bladder relaxation, urinary sphincter contraction, and increased production of saliva. A feedback system limits excess release of chemicals to prevent prolonged stimulation of the various organs.

In diseases, such as asthma, bronchitis, or emphysema, airways become constricted due to smooth muscle spasms and inflammation so breathing becomes hampered. Migraines occur when cerebral vessels constrict, spasm, and eventually dilate. The Migraine Headache pain is caused by continual cerebral vessel dilatation.

Sympathomimetic (Adrenergic) Agents, like Bronchodilators, relax the smooth muscles and dilate the airways to improve breathing. Bronchodilators, such as Adrenalin, Epinephrine, Alupent, or Albuterol, imitate epinephrine and norepinephrine or trigger the release of more natural epinephrine and norepinephrine for airway dilatation. Pseudoephedrines relieve congestion due to inflammation and assist in opening the air passageways.

Sympatholytic (Adrenergic Blocking) Agents, like Cafergot, can be used to treat migraine headaches. They inhibit the chemical release of epinephrine or norepinephrine resulting in constriction of the already dilated cerebral vessels.

Nervous System Anticonvulsants, Sedatives, & Hypnotics are used to depress brain activity and treat sleeplessness, anxiety, nervousness, and seizures.

The brain consists of many cells, called neurons, that communicate with other cells throughout the body. Neurons are made of three major parts: the cell body, axon, and dendrite. To communicate messages, the neuron transmits electrical impulses that trigger chemicals to be released. Chemicals (also known as neurotransmitters) such as norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and others, are released into a region between two neurons, called the synapse. Another neuron responds to the chemicals in the synaptic junction by inhibiting or sending the electrical signal. The electrical signals in the brain are usually organized to produce smooth movements. Once the receiving cell has responded, the chemicals remaining in the synaptic junction are either broken down by enzymes or retaken up by the transmitter cell.

Normal sleep occurs with fatigue and reduced stimulation. However, if excessive electrical impulses are triggered, disorganization, increased chemical release, and altered brain functioning occurs resulting in sleeplessness (or insomnia). Anxiety can be caused by unorganized or excessive electrical impulses producing tensions, inability to relax, shakiness, sweating, racing heart, feelings of apprehension, lack of concentration, insomnia, and other negative effects. Epilepsy, or seizures, can result from disorganization of electrical impulses, producing uncontrolled muscle activity, spasms, unconsciousness, or loss of bowel or bladder control.

Anticonvulsants, Anxiolytics, Sedatives, and Hypnotics can be used to treat anxiety, insomnia, or seizures. Neuronal excitability is diminished by these medications by decreasing impulse transmission and returning body movements to a more organized smooth state, relaxation, or sleep. The medications decrease the spread of the neuronal activity, reorganizing impulse formation, chemical release or response, synaptic response, or receiver cell response so messages are acted upon appropriately.

Nervous System Antidepressants, Tranquilizers and Other Agents alter the chemicals in the brain to treat symptoms of Depression, Manic-Depression, Psychosis or Schizophrenia.

The brain consists of many cells, called neurons, that communicate with other cells throughout the body. Neurons are made of three major parts: the cell body, axon, and dendrite. To communicate messages, the neuron transmits electrical impulses that trigger chemicals to be released. Chemicals (also known as neurotransmitters) such as norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and others, are released into a region between two neurons, called the synapse. Another neuron responds to the chemicals in the synaptic junction by excitement or with inhibition. Once the receiving cell has responded, the chemicals remaining in the synaptic junction are either broken down by monoamine oxidase enzymes or retaken up by the transmitter cell.

Alterations in neuronal cell function can influence psychological behavior. Depression can be caused by decreased chemical levels, especially serotonin and norepinephrine. On the other hand, Psychosis, Schizophrenia, or other mental illnesses can be caused by increased chemical (mainly dopamine) activity in the synapse. Manic-Depression, characterized by severe mood swings from elation to depression, may be caused by variable chemical extremes in the synapse and shifting inside the neuron.

Antidepressants, specifically Tricyclics and MAO Inhibitors, can be used to treat depression. Tricyclics redirect excitatory chemicals for use in the synapse to stimulate or excite other neurons. MAO Inhibitors block enzymes that break down chemicals, allowing further activity or excitement to occur in the synapse.

Tranquilizers, specifically Phenothiazines, cause calming effects or sedation for Psychosis, Schizophrenia, or other mental illnesses. They decrease the transmission of the nerve signals by blocking the chemicals, especially dopamine, at targeted receptor sites.

Antimanic Agents, like Lithium, can be used to treat Manic-Depression by altering the elements in the cell, stabilizing nerve impulse transmission and chemical release.

Nervous System Cholinergic and Anticholinergic Agents are used to stimulate or reduce certain body functions and movements. They are used in the treatment of Urinary Retention, Myasthenia Gravis, Diarrhea, Cramps, Nervous Stomach, Ulcers, or Parkinson's Disease.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System is made up of neurons that communicate with other cells in the body by releasing chemicals into the synapse to excite receptors and send electrical impulses. The chemicals, primarily Acetylcholine, alter the system, resulting in decreased heart rate and strength, airway and pupil constriction, muscle and bladder contraction (with sphincter relaxation), increased intestinal wall activity, and an increase in saliva and insulin secretion. Once the receiving cells respond, any acetylcholine still in the synaptic junction is broken down by acetylcholinesterase that temporarily diminishes the effects.

Prolonged diminished acetlycholine effects may cause disorders like urinary retention, gastric reflux, or Myasthenia Gravis. Urinary retention can occur due to lack of stimulation to the bladder muscle and lack of sphincter relaxation. Gastric reflux occurs when stomach secretions and food are forced up the digestive tract instead of down to be digested. Myasthenia Gravis is due to weakened skeletal muscles causing decreased functioning.

Cholinergic (Parasympathomimetic) Agents, like Bethanechol, Mestinon, or Prostigmin, can be used to stimulate bladder contraction, digestive tract movement, and skeletal muscle movement. Cholinergic Agents imitate Acetylcholine or inhibit acetylcholinesterase to prevent acetylcholine breakdown.

Parkinson's Disease can occur when an imbalance of acetylcholine and dopamine neurotransmitters result in tremors or shaking, increased muscle tone and rigidity, expressionless face, drooling, and an unstable standing position. Increased neurotransmission occurs when excitable acetylcholine levels are raised and relaxant dopamine levels are decreased. Digestive disorders can occur due to acetylcholinergic effects of increased stomach or intestine activity causing Peptic Ulcers, Diarrhea, Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Cramps, or Nervous Stomach.

Parkinson's Disease symptoms can be reduced with Anticholinergic Agents, such as Cogentin or Artane, which oppose acetylcholine actions to regain balance with dopamine. Anticholinergic Agents relax muscles, decreasing tremors, shaking, and rigidity. They also decrease salivary secretions. Anticholinergic Agents, like Belladonna, Anaspas, Levsin, Bentyl, and Rubinul, inhibit acetlycholine and decrease stomach and intestinal activity.

Nervous System Miscellaneous Agents provide controlled amounts of Nicotine to help people stop smoking.

Brain cells, called neurons, communicate with other cells throughout the body by releasing chemicals, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse to excite receptors. Once the receiving cell has responded, the acetylcholine remaining in the synaptic junction is broken down by acetylcholinesterase.

Nicotine in tobacco mimics the action of acetylcholine but is not destroyed by acetylcholinesterase, and so has longer stimulation effects on the heart, stomach, intestines, brain, and skeletal muscles. This increased chemical and electrical activity cause blood vessel constriction, higher blood pressure, increased stomach and intestine secretions and movement, and increased brain stimulation. Nicotine also alters the brain to suppress appetite.

When an individual stops tobacco smoking, the body attempts to adjust to the lack of stimulation and withdrawal can occur. Nicotine, as a medication, can be used as an aid to stop smoking. The medication, Nicotine, is administered in lowered and controlled amounts, replacing the effects of tobacco nicotine. It allows the body to adjust to less chemical stimulation and is typically administered for a limited time as patches or chewing gum.

Nervous System Skeletal Muscle Relaxants prevent muscle spasms that can occur with Strains, Sprains, Spinal Cord Injury, or Multiple Sclerosis.

Skeletal Muscles, attached to bones, provide body movement or contraction in response to nerve stimulation. The brain and spinal cord communicate through nerves to muscle cells for contraction. The nerve impulses release chemicals (mainly acetylcholine) at the nerve-muscle junction (called synapse), causing excitement and sending electrical messages to the rest of the muscle group to shorten or contract. Acetylcholine remaining in the junction after the muscle contracts is destroyed by other chemicals allowing muscle relaxation. The muscle movements normally are voluntary, conscious, and smooth.

If chemical release continues, skeletal muscles remain contracted, resulting in involuntarymuscle spasms, causing decreased functioning and pain. This can occur with spinal cord injury, strains or sprains of muscles, or with a disease like Multiple Sclerosis.

Skeletal Muscle Relaxants can decrease muscle spasms by restricting the nervous pathway to the muscle. This interruption of impulse transmission can occur in the brain, spinal cord, neuron, nerve-muscle junction, or in the muscle. Most Skeletal Muscle Relaxants act by depressing the brain pathways or interfering with chemical activity in the nerve-muscle junction. However, Dantrium directly inhibits muscle cellular calcium movement to prevent contraction.

Nervous System Stimulants are used to treat Obesity, Narcolepsy, or Attention Deficit Disorder. These drugs, often also called Stimulants and Appetite Suppressants, make the brain active, resulting in alertness, increased attention span, and decreased appetitAppetite and alertness are controlled by the brain stem. More specifically, the reticular activating system, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus signal the release of chemicals (called norepinephrine) that trigger electrical activity resulting in alertness and suppressed appetite. Other environmental stimuli, such as smell, blood sugar, physical fitness, or fatigue can influence the release of these chemicals.

If the brain stem malfunctions, chemical release may be limited and cause one of the following diseases. Obesity can occur when the satiety center in the brain lacks stimulation to cease eating or transmit the feeling of being full. Narcolepsy is the tendency to fall asleep during the day. Attention Deficit Disorder, a childhood disease, occurs when the brain chemicals are disorganized and not read appropriately by the brain, causing decreased attention span and concentration, increased impulsiveness, and, occasionally, hyperactivity

Cerebral Stimulants, such as Amphetamines, Nonamphetamine Stimulants, or Appetite Suppressants, can be used for Narcolepsy, Obesity, and Attention Deficit Disorder. Cerebral Stimulants activate the brain to release chemicals (norepinephrine) and enhance electrical activity resulting in alertness, euphoria, increased attention span or concentration, and decreased appetite.

Pain Agents are also known as Analgesics and are manufactured in different strengths to control varying degrees of pain. Some of these medications (Antipyretics) also reduce fever.

To communicate pain, nerves transmit electrical impulses that trigger chemical release (mainly prostaglandins) into a region called the synapse. Another nerve cell responds to the chemicals in the synaptic junction and transmits the pain message to the brain.

Brain cells, called neurons, communicate with other cells throughout the body and release a natural opiate-like chemical (endorphins) to excite opioid receptors on the end of nerve cells. Endorphins interrupt the pain message traveling to the brain by inhibiting release of other neurotransmitters. Pain is a very complex phenomenon that involves physiological, psychological, cultural, and other factors. Pain can be a warning symptom or protective mechanism warning the individual of a problem.

If pain is not inhibited by the natural endorphins released in the body, medications can be used to decrease pain sensitivity or increase pain tolerance. The need for Pain control will vary among individuals. Analgesics are drugs used to relieve the symptoms of pain. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents (NSAIDS), are further divided into those made of salicylate (like Aspirin) and those constituted of non-Aspirin compounds, (like Ibuprofen). NSAIDS decrease pain sensation by generally inhibiting prostaglandin production, which is responsible for inflammation. This, in turn, also decreases redness, heat, or swelling. Refer to ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS and DENTAL AGENTS for more information. NSAIDS also alter the hypothalamus in the brain, which decreases temperature. Additionally, Aspirin and Aspirin compounds prevent blood clotting and can be useful to prevent strokes and other diseases.

Narcotic Analgesics and Acetaminophen act directly, like natural endorphins, to inhibit prostaglandins in the brain and spinal cord, altering the pain perception. Narcotic Analgesics, such as Morphine, Meperidine, Codeine, or Methadone, are also called opioids and function by combining with opiate receptors at nerve endings to block pain signals.

Opiate Antagonists, such as Naloxone or Narcan, reverse action of narcotic drugs and natural endorphins in nerve endings. These medications can be used for narcotic overdose or reversal of respiratory depression caused by opiates.

Respiratory Antitussives, Expectorants, and Mucolytics are used to treat secretions and cough occurring with the common cold, allergies, hay fever, sinus infection, bronchitis, pneumonia, asthma, or emphysema.

Breathing allows oxygen to be exchanged with carbon dioxide in the alveoli of the lungs to give the cells energy. Air enters into the nose and throat for natural humidifying and purifying before being sent to the lungs. Tiny hairs inside the nose and upper respiratory tract (called cilia), act as a screen to foreign particles. Specialized cells in the respiratory tract produce mucus to stop or trap any foreign particles that slip past this hair screen.

If foreign particles make their way past the cilia and into the lower respiratory tract, coughing may occur to defend the passageways. This is a natural defensive reflex to rid the respiratory tract of foreign particles or secretions so air can be transported freely. Cough is initiated locally by stimulation or irritation of receptors in the respiratory tract walls that send messages to the central respiratory center in the medulla of the brain.

Failure of mucus production or cough mechanisms may allow foreign particles to invade and cause illness. Illnesses such as the common cold, asthma, bronchitis, allergies, hay fever, sinusitis, emphysema, or pneumonia cause symptoms of increased cough or mucus production. A productive cough to rid the airways of mucus or foreign particles can be irritating, painful, or exhausting. Nonproductive or dry cough usually occurs due to irritation of the airways but does not clear secretions.

ANTITUSSIVES, EXPECTORANTS, AND MUCOLYTIC AGENTS can reduce discomfort of respiratory illness by decreasing the symptoms of cough or mucus. The cause of cough or increased mucus, such as inflammation or infection, is typically treated first. Then, Mucolytics, such as Acetylcysteine, are usually given by inhalation for direct action on the respiratory tract to thin mucous secretions by breaking them up. This usually makes it easier to expel the secretions. Expectorants, such as Guaifenesin, Iodinated Glycerol, or Potassium Iodide,, increase production of mucus to trap foreign particles and excrete them by a productive cough.

Antitussives can suppress a nonproductive cough. Narcotic Antitussives, such as Codeine, Hydrocodone, or Hydromorphone act centrally to depress the medullary respiratory center in the brain to decrease cough. Some of the Narcotic Antitussives may also decrease the ciliary’s action. Synthetic Antitussives, like Dextromethorphan, act like Narcotic Antitussives by suppressing the brain but have fewer adverse reactions. Nonnarcotic Antitussives, such as Benzonatate, act locally to numb receptor sites in the respiratory tract wall so cough messages cannot be sent to the brain. Many of these medications are used in combination and may occur in either prescription or nonprescription preparations.

Respiratory Smooth Muscle Relaxants are used to open air passageways and limit such symptoms as shortness of breath, coughing, or wheezing that are often associated with Allergies, Infections, Asthma, Pneumonia, or Emphysema.

Respiration or breathing is a two way process consisting of inspiration and expiration. Air, containing gasses like oxygen, is transported into the body during inspiration. Carbon dioxide gas is transported out of the body during expiration. The nose, throat and tracheobronchial tree move air to and from the lungs where gas exchange occurs between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood. The blood then circulates oxygen to cells to use as energy. Carbon dioxide is released back into the blood stream, carried to the alveoli, then released back into the air.

The respiratory center of the brain regulates movement of the respiratory muscles and walls of the bronchi leading to the lungs. Nerves transmit impulses from the brain to constrict the muscles and bronchial walls so less air is able to enter into the body for gas exchange. Normally, the respiratory muscles are flexible and respond to a feedback system by dilating when carbon dioxide accumulates.

Certain disease processes of the upper and lower respiratory tract decrease the flexibility of the respiratory muscles and result in restricted gas exchange between the alveoli of the lung and the blood stream. Inflammation of the tracheobronchial tree, due to allergy or infection, causes increased mucus production and swelling. The upper air passageways become restricted due to this mucus and swelling and air movement is hampered. This occurs in hay fever, common cold, tracheitis, or bronchitis.. Pneumonia, Asthma, and Emphysema are diseases that decrease the flexibility of the lower passageways due to inflammation, making it difficult for the gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood stream to occur. Constriction or decreased flexibility of the respiratory muscles can cause shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing or other symptoms.

Respiratory Smooth Muscle Relaxants, such as Xanthines,, convert to theophylline that inhibits an enzyme (phosphodiesterase) to directly relax smooth muscles of the respiratory tract and alter the respiratory center in the brain. With relaxation, breathing passages open so air can be transported and effective gas exchange can occur. If constriction due to muscle wall swelling occurs, Xanthines are combined with Expectorants, Decongestants, Antihistamines, or other medications to allow unrestricted gas exchange and adequate oxygenation.

Serums, Toxoids, & Vaccines provide immunity against Measles, Mumps, Rubella, Tetanus, Hepatitis, and others. In contrast, other drugs may be given to delay immunity and prevent Organ Rejection. Pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses, frequently attack the body. Typically, pathogens enter the body and release toxins to invade and destroy other cells. The normal body response is to destroy and eliminate the pathogens or the cells they occupy.

When normal body defense systems cannot eliminate the pathogens, they multiply and continue to release toxins, damaging normal body cells. This can result in infectious disease, producing minor symptoms such as fever, fatigue, body aches, or more severe symptoms. In response, the body usually produces antibodies to resist future invasion by that specific virus or bacteria. The body can also react by producing substances against other foreign tissue like transplanted organs. This is called Organ rejection.

SERUMS, TOXOIDS, AND VACCINES artificially protect the body against diseases caused by specific pathogens. Toxoids, such as MMR or Tetanus Toxoid, contain altered bacteria and are given to fight off invasion by bacterial toxic substances and prevent harmful effects. Vaccines are altered viruses that are given to fight off specific viral infections, such as Hepatitis B or Typhoid Fever. Toxoids and Vaccines take time to be effective against the pathogen but last for a long time. Serums are given to establish immediate protection against disease but are short acting. They are made from blood of humans or animals that have recovered from the disease. In contrast, Immunosuppressants, like Imuran or Sandimmune, prevent the immune response to control organ rejection and other diseases.

Skin & Mucous Membrane Agents and Enzymes are applied directly to the skin or mucous membranes to treat conditions such as Dry or Oily Skin, Dandruff, Acne, Psoriasis, or even some Respiratory conditions (Asthma or Cystic Fibrosis).

The largest organ in the human body is the skin that covers and protects the body. Components of the skin include the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis constantly regenerates and replaces cells, while the dermis is composed of stretchable connective tissues, blood vessels, nerves, and glands. The skin functions as a covering and protects the organs and tissues within the body. Skin also helps regulate temperature, excretes water, and serves as a touch sense receptor. Mucous membranes, such as those in the nose or throat, are epithelial cells that line body cavities with exterior openings and frequently secrete mucus.

Disorders can occur due to alterations in the continuous skin and mucous membrane coverings or glands within the skin. They include Acne, psoriasis, dry or oily skin, and dandruff. Acne occurs when the oil secreting sebaceous glands over produce and plug hair follicles. Psoriasis occurs when new cell production is greater than the sloughing of old cells causing an accumulation and inflamed patchy area. Dandruff is the accumulation of dead cells on the scalp forming scales that are shed. Additionally, cavities coated with mucous membranes can produce mucus plugs.

SKIN AND MUCOUS MEMBRANE AGENTS and ENZYMES act on the surface of the skin and mucous membranes. They lubricate or remove excess oil, encourage skin cell multiplication or loosen and remove old cells, and protect the skin from sun, fade dark spots, or restore color.

Vitamins and Caloric Agents are used in the prevention and treatment of Malnutrition or Vitamin Deficiency.

A balanced intake of food is needed to provide vitamins and nutrients. Food is then digested, absorbed, and circulated as glucose or other chemicals to all cells of the body to use for energy, growth, and repair. Because nutrients cannot be adequately stored, frequent replenishment is necessary to meet cell needs.

With inadequate nutritional intake, malabsorption, or other illnesses, malnutrition and vitamin deficiency occur, resulting in various states of disease. This can cause impaired growth and impaired healing, as well as numerous cellular changes.

VITAMINS and Caloric Agents provide the nutrients absent from daily consumption to maintain normal metabolic function, growth, and repair. They also treat diseases caused by impaired daily nutrition.

SHAB ( scalar energy,homeopathic,acupressure treatment, training & ;biz center

Saturday, April 25, 2009

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